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A History of the So-Called Jansenist
Church of Holland By the Rev. J.M. Neale, M.A. Oxford: John Henry and James Parker,
1858 Chapter I. The External State Of The Church Of
Utrecht Till The Reformation.
[62] 2. The Church of Utrecht owes
its origin to that of England. The Catti, Batavi, and Frisones,
notwithstanding various attempts that had been made for their conversion,
remained in heathenism and ferocity till the conclusion of the seventh
century. At that time, S. Egbert, an Irish priest and monk, who had been
desirous of himself preaching the Gospel in Friesland, but was prevented by a
divine intimation, despatched Willibrord, an Englishman by birth, with eleven
zealous companions, to conduct the enterprise. Pepin, Mayor of the Palace,
had conquered from Radbod, Duke of the Frisones, the tract of land which lay
between the Rhine and the Meuse, and which then bore the name of Nether
Friesland. He took the missionaries under his protection; and shortly afterwards
one of them, by name Suitbert, also an Englishman, was consecrated Bishop by
S. Wilfrid of York, at that time under sentence of deposition by S. Theodore
of Canterbury. Shortly afterwards Willibrord himself was sent to Rome, with
presents and letters of recommendation from Pepin, and was by Pope Sergius I.
consecrated Archbishop of the Frisones. On his return, the city of Utrecht
was assigned to him as his episcopal residence by Pepin; and in his fifty
years’ pontificate he brought multitudes of his flock into the fold of the
Church. For these he ordained regionary bishops, — that is, prelates without
any certain see, with jurisdiction within the limits of his province. 3. To him succeeded the great
Archbishop of Mayence, the English Winfrid, better known by his adopted name
of Boniface. Other labourers, however, were cultivating the same evangelical
field, and conspicuous for their sanctity and their toils. Such were S.
Adalbert, Archdeacon of Utrecht; S. Acca, afterwards Bishop of Hexham; S. Engelmund,
who [63] laboured round Velsen; and S. Werenfrid, who is honoured at Elst and
Westervoort. But the rising honours of the archbishopric of Utrecht gave
umbrage to the see of Cologne, which claimed jurisdiction over the new
converts. These claims, unheeded during the episcopates of Willibrord and
Boniface, were, on the glorious martyrdom of the latter, (June 5, 754,)
received at Rome; and S. Gregory, the friend and companion of the martyred
Pontiff, was consecrated Bishop of Utrecht, the see of Cologne being
at the same time raised to metropolitical rank. In the meanwhile the Saxons
Willibald and Wunibald laboured in Friesland; S. Meircellinus in Overyssel;
S. Wiro, and S. Plechelm, and S. Lebuin, near Roermonde and Deventer; and by
degrees the huge diocese of Utrecht received the faith. Of its first twenty
prelates, most were worthy successors of Willibrord; several are reckoned
among the saints. With S. Bernulphus, who died in 1054, this series ends; and
then came the times of degeneracy. The Bishop was temporal lord of the
Sticht, which derived its name from the city. This was divided into the
Over-Sticht, now the province of Overyssel; and the Neder-Sticht, now the
province of Utrecht. The incursions of the Normans, and then the continued
attempts of the Counts of Holland to possess this ecclesiastical territory,
fostered in the highest degree the warlike spirit of its inhabitants, so that
the proverb was current, — “Hoed u nu, hoed u dan, The bishops, consequently, became
warriors rather than prelates; the duties of their pastoral office were
frequently exercised by suffragans, while they themselves headed armies
against the Dukes of Guelders or the Counts of Holland. It is recorded, in
high praise [64] of Burchard (1100 — 1113), that he conferred holy orders
with his own hands. The power of the prelates over the two Stichts was not
far short of absolute, but in the city it was extremely limited. Their
ordinary residence was in the castle of Wyk-by-Duurstede, and when they
desired to visit the town itself they were obliged to ask leave of the
magistrates, — who, with the exception of the sheriff, were elected by the
citizens, — and to demand a safe conduct for those of their suite. The only
bounds to their external jurisdiction were the necessity of obtaining the
approbation of their Chapter before they could either convoke an assembly or
declare war. Of this Chapter I shall have to speak more in the sequel. Up to
the accession of Heribert, who died in 1150, the election had been popular,
laity and clergy being equally interested in it. In the year 1145, Eugenius
III., at the petition of the Emperor Conrad III., restricted it to the two
Chapters of the cathedral and S. Saviour’s (otherwise S. Boniface); it was
afterwards extended to those of S. Mary, S. Peter, and S. John, which, with
the other two, thenceforward constituted the Chapter of Utrecht[1].
The new regime gave occasion to fiercer quarrels and more deadly outbreaks
than the old; but the change, as we shall see, was of the highest importance,
and affected the very existence of the Church of Holland. 4. A post of such worldly honour and
emolument as the bishopric of Utrecht naturally gave rise to innumerable
intrigues, — and an election, in the lapse of years, was seldom effected
without bloodshed. It was something, in a feudal age, to be able to lead
forth forty thousand men under the banner of S. Martin; and the arms of the
see, Gules, a Cross Argent, had more than once struck terror
into the mightiest of the [65] neighbouring potentates. Amidst scenes like
these, it is easy to imagine the wreck of zeal and the absence of love which
the diocese displayed. The most cultivated, the most luxurious, the most
commercial state was also that in which there were fewer prelates than in any
other part of Christendom; the Seven Provinces, including such towns as
Amsterdam, Haarlem, Leyden, Rotterdam, Leeuwarden, Groningen, and a
considerable part of modern Belgium, were under the spiritual rule of the
Bishops of Utrecht; the neighbouring sees of Liége, Münster, Paderborn, and
Osnabrück were in like manner eaten up with worldliness; and the enormous
extent of diocese, and the frightful want of pastoral superintendence, thus
comes out in the strongest colours. We must also take into account the
further complications of those conflicting political influences which made
the Low Countries “the cockpit of Europe,” and which gave such vast temporal
importance to many of the sees. The Elector of Cologne, the Prince-Bishops of
Liége, Utrecht, and Münster fought and conquered like any other monarchs;
leaving their proper duties to their suffragans in partibus, they
threw their whole energies into the quarrels of France, and of the Germanic
Empire; into the factions of the Hooks and the Codfish; or, in
later times, those of the Grignoux and Chiroux. If, as late as
1660, Bishop Galen of Münster could employ himself in battering down the
houses of his flock, in revenge for an insurrection, we may form some
conception of the utter forgetfulness of pastoral duties previous to the
partial reformation effected by the Council of Trent, which characterized the
possessors of those superb, yet miserable, sees. And so the story is well
known of an Elector of Cologne who, passing through the streets of his city
with his usual [66] retinue, saw a poor man dying in a fit by the roadside.
“Is there no one,” he exclaimed, “who for the love of God will fetch some
priest to assist this miserable creature ?” — utterly forgetful that he
himself had been invested with sacerdotal powers. 5. Again, the difference of language
must have formed a great difficulty as regarded the efficient working of the
Church in the Seventeen Provinces. Walloon, with its two great varieties,
Liégeoise and Montoise, pure Flemish, pure Dutch, Dutch of Guelderland, Dutch
of Overyssel, Frisic, with its countless varieties — how must they have stood
in the way of any united movement on the part of bishops, parish priests, and
religious orders! The small town of Molquerum, in Friesland, is divided into
seven little islands, joined by as many bridges; and some sixty years ago the
dialect of any inhabitant marked out at once to which of the islands he
belonged. 6. It will be necessary to dwell on
one or two of the sad consequences, as having exercised no small influence on
the future course of our history. The see being vacant in 1322, James
Oudshoorn, Dean of the Cathedral Church, was elected by the larger part of
the Chapter. In order to obtain his bulls — his competitor, James, Bishop of
Suda in partibus, having appealed to Rome — he was forced to expend so
enormous a sum of money, that his family, one of the most ancient in Holland,
was ruined. Pope John XXII., however, at length confirmed the election; but
Bishop Oudshoorn had no sooner obtained the object of his wishes than he was
seized with a mortal illness, occasioned, it was said, by poison,
administered to him by his rival. While he lay on his death-bed, James of
Suda demanded of the Pope that the see of Utrecht should be reserved to the Apostolic
Chamber, according [67] to the new practice then beginning to be timidly
brought forward by the Court of Rome. His aim was to obtain that dignity by
the gift of the Pope which he felt he could never reach by the election of
the Chapter. The proposal was graciously accepted at Avignon, but the
proposer did not gain the recompense he had hoped. On the death of Oudshoorn,
the Chapter, acknowledging no apostolical reserves, elected John, Baron of
Bronkhorst. John XXII. declared the election null. On this, the Duke of
Brabant and the Counts of Holland and Guelderland offered to support the
Papal pretension, provided their candidate, John, Lord of Diest, were
nominated to the bishopric. The Pope, delighted with such support, willingly
consented, and the Bishop-designate was introduced into his cathedral under a
good military guard. His episcopate corresponded with its commencement. He
mortgaged a large portion of the estates of the Church; and after reducing
himself by his lavish expenditure to poverty, lived on a pension assigned
him. On his death, in 1341, he left the ecclesiastical revenues overwhelmed
with debt. 7. John of Bronkhorst — become a
candidate for the second time — and John of Arckel divided the votes of the
Chapter. Benedict XII. claimed the nomination to the see, and appointed
Nicolas de Caputiis, auditor of the Rota, to that dignity. This ecclesiastic,
finding that he should be compelled to residence, abdicated; and — no doubt
for a consideration — recommended John of Arckel to the Pope. Clement VI.,
for another consideration, raised him to the see of Utrecht. This prelate was
a most distinguished warrior, and was regarded as unconquerable. In the
contests of the Hooks and the Codfish he took an active part; at the same
time he was a zealous supporter of the external discipline [68] of his
Church. He was translated to Liege in 1364. During the events which I have just
been chronicling, the great founder of the mystic school of theology began to
distinguish himself. 8. It was on a fine August evening
that I visited the little village of Ruysbroek, the birthplace of the
“ecstatic Doctor.” The singularly uneventful annals of the life of John de
Ruysbroek, peaceful and lovely in the midst of a turbulent and luxurious
generation, were not, I thought, ill typified by the sunshiny repose of that
little Belgian hamlet, so near the din and turmoil of a corrupt metropolis.
Long after he was considered the first ascetic divine of his age, John
contented himself with the post of a vicar in the collegiate church of S.
Gudule, in Brussels, whence he was the director of all the communities, far
and near, that were most distinguished for holiness and discipline. He was
the reformer of the Abbey of S. Severin, near Chateau Laudun; mediately, it
is believed, of the great convent of Rhynsberg, and of the collegiate church
of Groenen-dael (Val-Vert), where the last years of his life were spent. But
what his influence must have been is rather to be gathered from the tone
taken at once by all his scholars, — that intense love to God, that
overwhelming devotion to the Passion[2], which characterized the
mystic school of Holland, from Ruysbroek himself to De Neercassel. While the
competitors for the see of Utrecht were persecuting each other, and ruining
their families by gratuities to the Pope, — while, later, the rivals for the
chair of S. Peter were fulminating their anathemas against their opponents,
were availing themselves of every engine that intrigue, simony, and
corruption could supply, — it is [69] pleasant to turn aside, as we shall do
in the next chapter, to the writings and labours of these pious monks, and to
see in them, and in such as they were, the seven thousand that had not bowed
the knee to this Baal of pontifical worldliness. 9. I must first, however, relate
another schism, which had still more important consequences to the Church of
Utrecht. On the death of Frederic de Blanckenheim, counted the fifty-first
Bishop, there were three candidates, — Rodolph de Diephold, Sweder de
Culemburg, Dean of the Cathedral, and Walraff de Morsan. As the Canons were
in deliberation, a Burgomaster of Utrecht broke into the conclave, and
threatened his nephew, the Dean of S. Peter’s, with death, if he gave his
vote for any but Rodolph. On this, the Cathedral Chapter protested, that any
election made under a threat would be invalid, and retired. The other
Chapters continued their deliberations. Sweder, finding himself without any
chance, gave his votes to Rodolph, — who was thus elected by the four
Chapters; the Cathedral Chapter elected Walraff. Rodolph, however, who was a
layman, having the immense majority of suffrages, was enthroned, and took
possession; and then requested his bulls from Martin V. This demand was
supported by the city, and by the Duke of Cleves. Martin, at the end of two
years, declared the election null; and in the plenitude of his power named
Raban, Bishop of Spires, to the see. This prelate took the precaution of
inquiring whether he should have any chance of entering his cathedral without
bloodshed. On learning that his episcopate must undoubtedly be purchased by a
battle, he sold all his right to Sweder, the disappointed candidate, in
return for Sweder’s deanery, “and other things” It was two years
before this arrangement [70] was ratified by the Pope, and Sweder, having
obtained his Bulls, marched upon Utrecht. With very great difficulty, and
after having been tied up by the most solemn oaths, he was enthroned; while
Rodolph, for his part, fled into Brussels, maintained his rights, and
appealed to the Pope better informed. Oaths, however, were nothing to Sweder.
Bernard Proeys, the burgomaster who had distinguished himself for his zeal on
behalf of Rodolph, was found murdered in his bed. Arrests, imprisonments,
executions, followed in such quick succession, that the three estates of
Utrecht (Aug. 21, 1425) forbade anyone to obey (that is, as a temporal lord)
the so-called Bishop. Shortly after, the partisans of Rodolph obtained
possession of the castle, and Sweder was driven from the city. Rodolph was recalled,
and, under the title of Bishop-postulate, took the charge of the Church; and
the Postulaets gulden which he struck are esteemed by virtuosi as
among the rarest of Dutch coins. Sweder assembled the few ecclesiastics that
adhered to him at Arnheim, and laid the diocese under an interdict. The three
estates appealed to the Pope; and as Martin V. looked down on the whole
proceedings with a lofty unconcern, they next appealed to the Future Council. 10. When Eugenius IV. succeeded to
the Papal chair the Estates implored his assistance. He could not afford to
treat the matter with the unconcern of his predecessor, for the Council of
Basle was sitting. After despatching the Bishop of Macon to make inquiries on
the spot, he, by a Bull of Oct. 13, 1433, declared that his predecessor had
been mistaken in refusing to confirm the election of Rodolph; that the crimes
of Sweder were of the most gross and glaring character; he annulled all the
acts of that intruder, and confirmed the election of Rodolph. That Bishop
[71] survived the pacification twenty-two years, and governed his Church with
great prudence. Sweder, after having vainly appealed to the Council of Basle,
from whom he could obtain nothing but the empty title of Archbishop of
Caesarea, died of a broken heart in that city. His partisans chose Walraff,
his early competitor, as his successor. He obtained the confirmation of the
Duke of Savoy, called Felix V. in his obedience, and returned to Arnheim;
and, more fortunate than his predecessor, was presented with the bishopric of
Minister as his reward for ceasing to vex the Church of Utrecht. 11. The successor of Rodolph, Gisbert
de Brederode, had a cruel war to maintain against David of Burgundy, the
natural son of Philip the Good. This personage partly forced Gisbert, partly
brought him to consent to abdication. His arbitrary government, supported as
it was by the authority of his brother, Charles the Bold, roused the citizens
to revolt, and a long war was the result. David, however, maintained himself
till his death in 1496. He is praised for some good qualities, especially for
insisting on the necessity of learning in his clergy. Having heard great
complaints of the laxity of the episcopal examinations, he once undertook
them himself, and only admitted three out of three hundred candidates. 12. The temporal sovereignty of the
Sticht remained in the see till the decease of Philip of Burgundy,
fifty-seventh bishop. This prelate obtained a brief from Leo X., which is of
the greatest importance in the defence of the rights of his Church. It
concedes that neither he, nor any of his successors, nor any of their clergy
or laity, should ever, in the first instance, have his cause evoked to any
external tribunal, not even under pretence of any apostolic letters whatever;
and [72] that all such proceedings should be ipso facto null and void.
The Pontiff was here only confirming an inalienable right of the Church; but
his confirmation was providential, as viewed in respect to the great schism
that was, in the course of years, to break out. Philip’s successor, Henry of
Bavaria, before consecration, was expelled the city by a faction, and, seeing
no hope of otherwise regaining possession, he offered to cede to the Emperor,
Charles V., as Count of Holland, his temporal sovereignty, if that monarch
would assist in reinstating him in his see. He had sworn to defend all the
privileges of that see, but he did not hesitate between breaking his oath and
losing his office. The cession took place on the 1st of October, 1528; the
privileges of the inhabitants were immediately crushed, the council
abolished, and the citizens were compelled to take an oath of fidelity to
their new master, — a requisition never made by their ecclesiastical lords.
Finding his rule unpalatable, Charles V. took the precaution of strengthening
it by the erection of a castle, which, in honour of a peace he concluded with
the Duke of Guelderland, he named Vredenburg. Thus the Church of Utrecht lost
her temporal lordship; and, perjured as the bishop was who ceded it, can we
doubt that she was well rid of so burdensome an appendage ? 13. Not one word is said in the act
of cession regarding any limitation of the power of free election enjoyed by
the Canons. But — for a difficulty must be fairly met — in the Bull of
Clement VII., bearing date Aug. 20, 1529, which confirms this cession,
mention is made of a certain act, by which the Chapters engaged to elect him
only whom the Emperors of Germany, in quality of Dukes of Brabant and Counts
of Holland, should have recommended. But there are [73] several sufficient
answers to this objection: — 1. This act is mentioned nowhere else, nor is
there the slightest allusion to it either in any contemporary records, or in
the thanks returned by the Emperor, nor in a second brief of Clement on the
same topic; nor has it, nor any copy of it, ever been produced. Add to which,
that it is only mentioned accidentally in the Bull, and we shall have
evidence enough in the following pages, how little historical worth such
assertions can frequently boast. 2. Granting the act to have been given, it
was ultra vires of the Canons, themselves only depositaries, and not
absolute possessors of the right. 3. The cession was not acted on by those
whom it most concerned to have availed themselves of it, as we shall see
presently. The probability is that it was suppositions; the certainty that,
let the case be how it may, it was never considered binding either by one
party or the other. 14. Henry of Bavaria enjoyed his
ill-gotten dignity only for five years. He fell into contempt among his
people, went by the name of de blaauwe Bisschop, resigned, in vain
endeavoured to re-obtain his see, and died in obscurity as Bishop of
Frisingen. His successor was William Enchvoort, a native of Brabant. He was
Cardinal, and already Bishop of Tortosa, in Spain. Clement VII., in the
plenitude of his power, elevated him to the see of Utrecht — a violent
infraction of all right, but proving nothing against that of the Chapters,
who, if they ceded it at all, ceded it not to the Pope, but to the Emperor.
He never visited his see, which he held seven years. On his death, George of
Egmont, of the Counts of that name, was duly elected by the Canons, and
confirmed without difficulty (1536). He seems to have been a truly pious man,
and must have been a welcome change after [74] the warriors and intriguers of
the preceding century and a half. His alms and austerity of life were well
known, and he was especially strict in the personal examination of candidates
for holy orders. It was he who gave the first of its celebrated stained-glass
windows to the Church of Gouda: the artist was Dirk Crabeth, and the subject
is the Baptism of our Lord. George of Egmont died at his monastery of S.
Arnaud, near Tournay, September 26, 1559, and was buried there. His heart,
however, was interred at Utrecht, and his epitaph alone, of the seventy
archbishops, exists in its desecrated walls. But before I describe the erection of
the see of Utrecht into an archbishopric, we will go back in the order of
time to glance at the life of deep holiness and piety which had been the
inner and more real existence of the Church of Holland during the centuries
of her worldliness. [1] Brocdersen, Tract. Hist. ii. pp. 35 — 39. [2] See note A, at the end of the book. [This
note spread to a length so utterly disproportionate to its connexion with the
history, that I thought better to omit it.] |
John Mason Neale, 1818-1866 |
